Week 4 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Week 4 - Research Paper Example They utilize hooks to hold their tunics together (Clark 34). It is a taboo for men designed trousers to bear rumples (or creases). All married men ought to grow beards. Their garments dimensions are also a subject to their unique Ordnung family they belong (Clark 17). They also wed their relatives. Those who attempt to wed outside their fellow Amish are subject to excommunication. The Amish also have elevated rates of infant deaths accruing from genetic disorders which are passed to generations though their population retains stability despite the vast infant deaths (Clark 24). The Amish approach almost every life aspect with a â€Å"plain simplicity attitude†. This â€Å"simplicity† is depicted in the manner they handle individual tasks each at a time. They always bid their time when executing a distinct task and hold on it until it’s complete prior to attempting a subsequent task. They also regard variant types of work (or jobs) with equal balance. As a result, their overall life is summed up by a tranquil and relaxed lifestyle. In Genesis 3:19, God reveals his wrath after Adam and Eve contravened to his word. Adam and Eve had consumed the fruit from the â€Å"tree of knowledge† which they had been a forewarned by God not to consume. God affirms in this verse that work is a prerequisite for mankind survival. God also affirms that work is an inextricable part of human nature. In addition, God points out that work will always be accompanied by extreme exhausting hard labour. The overall meaning of this verse would imply that mankind is incomplete void of work. In 1962, Dorothy Day birthed a movement which campaigned for equal treatment upon the Catholic workers. She also deployed The Catholic worker journal to expose chief essential aspects which the contemporaneous society at the time contravened with (Falk & Rita 89). The aforementioned journal points out Days’ philanthropic devotion to spark societal change which resulted in the

Ethical Dilemmas in Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Ethical Dilemmas in Nursing - Essay Example Humanism is a concept that goes beyond any person’s professional laws and requirements. Nurses may need to resort to their moral values and beliefs when coming up with a solution. (Benjamin, 2010). Some situations need to be weighed on closer look so that the best decision is made. During a moral dilemma there is not a right or wrong decision to make. (Hold, 2013). All in all, the dilemma must be solve particularly when the patient’s life is at risk.   Mr. Smith, 67 years of age and widowed, is fighting a UTI. This is a urinary tract infection which if not treated at the stage in which it is, it can cause further complications in his system. The only way to stop this complication is to offer him with Intravenous antibiotics which will ultimately kill the bacteria causing the UTI. However, Mr. Smith refuses the medication at all costs even after the doctors, nurses as well as his close family members have explained to him the importance. Informed consent is important i n medicine and the doctors have done a good job telling Mr. Smith and his family of his condition and what needs to be done. While it normal to see such a case where old people refuse treatment, Mr. Smith happens to not have a sober mind following the serious effects of the complications. The doctors and nurses have used this as basis that he is not legible to make any serious decisions by himself. Following this, the IV antibiotics are still being administered to Mr. Smith without his approval. Informed consent is not fully.

Reading comprehension Essay Example for Free

Reading comprehension Essay ABSTRACT. sion The (STRAT), authors evaluated instruction, strategies followed reciprocal same-age the effectiveness by practice + SA) (STRAT of explicit in teacher-led reading whole-class activities, peer-tutoring comprehen activities or cross-age peer-tutoring activities (STRAT + CA) on 2nd and 5th graders reading comprehen sion and self-efficacy For perceptions. 2nd multilevel graders, analyses revealed sig nificant STRAT and STRAT + CA effects; however, the effects did not last after fin the program. Fifth graders on the posttest better than ishing icantly in all 3 experimental  control group their conditions Results peers. performed signif con also showed tinued growth for the STRAT and STRAT + CA conditions until at least 6 months after students finished the program. Moreover, on both the posttest and retention test, 5th graders in the STRAT + CA condition reported significantly fewer negative thoughts Key words: prehension, related to their elementary reading reading proficiency. multilevel education, strategies, modeling, peer tutoring, reading com self-efficacy RESEARCH, decoding instruction has had a long and continuous of attention and debate. However, a hiatus can be recorded in the study of history reading comprehension. Two decades ago, strategy intervention research was in instruction received renewed atten vogue, but only recently has comprehension with current studies building on what was accomplished in the 1980s. Now, tion, the challenge in reading comprehension research is to increase the efficacy of in struction in elementary schools by identifying the instructional practices and ac tivities that best serve to develop childrens self-monitoring for comprehension IN READING (Snow, Burns, Griffin, 1998). 291. This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 292 The Journal Previously, students Once reading comprehension could decode, was considered comprehension was of Experimental Education to be a process of mastery: assumed to occur automatical ly (Dole, 2000). Research, however, has shown that good readers are character ized by more than just decoding skills. Cognitively based views of reading com readers use a flexible that proficient repertoire of prehension emphasize and regulating activities (Dole, Duffy, Roehler, comprehension monitoring  includes both cognitive and metacognitive Pearson, 1991), which strategies (Baker Brown, 1984; Paris, Wasik, Turner, 1991; Pressley Allington, 1999; Pressley, Johnson, Symons, McGoldrick, Kurita, 1989). Cognitive strat egies can be defined as mental or behavioral activities that increase the likelihood such as rereading, activating prior background knowledge, of comprehension, and adjusting reading speed (Van Den Broek Kremer, 2000). Metacognitive strategies can be specified as self-monitoring and regulating activities that focus on the product and the process of reading, support  readers awareness of com prehension, and assist in the selection of cognitive strategies as a function of text difficulty, situational constraints, and the readers own cognitive abilities (Lories, 1998; Van Den Broek Kremer; Weisberg, Dardenne, Yzerbyt, 1988). There is no reason to believe that all elementary students spon Unfortunately, and skills knowledge taneously develop essential cognitive and metacognitive Research reviews, however, reveal Allington, 1999). (Hartman, 2001; Pressley that monitoring and regulating skills and effective application of relevant strate can  gies be taught (Dole et al. , 1991; Pressley, 2000; Pressley et al. , 1989). In this Jones, 1992; Block, 1993; respect, recent studies (Baumann, Seifert-Kessell, Dole et al. ; Dole, Brown, Thrathen, 1996; Pearson Fielding, 1991) and re of the National Reading Council (U. S. ; Snow et al. , 1998) underscore the ports value of explicit cognitive and metacognitive reading strategy instruction, for instruction takes the mystery out of the reading process, helping comprehension students assume control (Raphael, 2000, p. 76). As to the practice of teaching observation re  reading, however, little has changed since Durkins (1978-1979) instruction. The dominant instructional practice is into comprehension students about text content, still very traditional, characterized by questioning with little explicit attention to the strategic aspects of processing and compre hending text (Aarnoutse, 1995; Paris Oka, 1986; Pressley, Wharton-McDon 1986). ald, Hampston, Echevarr? a, 1998; Weterings Aarnoutse, search In addition to the importance of explicit reading strategies instruction, research the effects program of an innovative  on the cognitive, and social, (Belgium) comprehension for reading The study was school children. emotional by a supported of elementary development Research-Flanders. Research grant of the Fund for Scientific Assistantship to: Hilde Van Keer, Department be addressed should of Education, Correspondence Hilde. VanKeer E-mail: Henri Dunantlaan Ghent Ghent, 2, 9000 Belgium. University, This study was part of a investigation long-term in Flanders instruction of @ UGent. Be This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions  293 Van Keer Verhaeghe has revealed that the development of reading competence in the elementary can be encouraged by interaction with peers (Almasi, 1996; Fuchs, Fuchs, grades Mathes, Simmons, 1997; Johnson-Glenberg, 2000; Mathes Fuchs, 1994; Mathes, Torgesen, Allor, 2001; Palincsar Brown, 1984; Rosenshine Meis ter, 1994; Simmons, Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes, Hodge, 1995). The traditional teacher-led evaluation interaction seems of pattern teacher question-student an to achieve insufficient actual response-teacher increase in comprehension,  higher level cognition, and the application of self-regulation strategies (Cazden, 1986). Relying on the teachers interpretive authority causes students to become passive learners. to become Conversely, students readers, self-regulated need to take an active role and to recognize and resolve their own discrepancies with texts (Almasi; Gourgey, 2001). Research has demonstrated that this kind of ac tive reading behavior is promoted by providing students with opportunities to en gage in peer-led interaction about texts. More particularly, it has been shown that, through  students discussions, peer implement, conferences, evaluate, and peer modify and tutoring, strategies, activities, cooperative and discuss of transfer strategies (Klingner Vaughn, 1996; Klingner, Vaughn, Schumm, 1998; Pal incsar Brown, 1984). Moreover, discussions between peers provide opportu nities for metacognitive (Palincsar, David, Winn, exchanges and modeling 1991). In this way, childrens knowledge about reading and reading strategies, as well as their ability to apply relevant strategies, increases. Despite these convincing research results, student-centered  discussion with regard to is anything but common practice in most classrooms reading comprehension Stevens, (Alvermann, 2000). In the present study, we attempted to narrow the gap between prevailing in structional practice and research evidence in the field of reading comprehension instruction. An innovative approach, blending research-based strategies instruction and to practice opportunities strategic the from practices research fields, was designed, aforementioned implemented, More specifically, the innovations comprised two cornerstones: and evaluated. explicit reading  reading in peer-tu toring dyads. Peer tutoring was introduced to stimulate student interaction be cause of the opportunities it creates to practice metacognitive skills. It should be noted that studies of peer tutoring in reading comprehension and thinking skills are relatively rare (Topping, 2001). Following research on peer-assisted learning strategies (e. g. , Fuchs, Fuchs, et al. , Mathes, 1997), c? as s wide peer tutoring (e. g. , Greenwood, 1991; Greenwood, Carta, Hall, 1988), and studies focusing on practicing reading strategies in small cooperative groups (e.g. , Brown, Pressley, Van Meter, Schuder, 1996; Palincsar Brown, 1984; Pressley et al, 1992; Stevens, Madden, Slavin, Famish, 1987; Stevens, Slavin, Famish, 1991), the present study involved training in comprehension strategies rather than tutoring students in word-level oral reading or low-level comprehension activities. Peer tutoring can be defined as people from similar social groupings who are This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 294. The Journal of Experimental Education not professional  teachers helping each other to leam, and learning themselves by teaching (Topping, 1996, p. 322). This definition covers a series of practices, in cluding peers as one-on-one teachers to provide individualized instruction, prac tice, repetition, and clarification of concepts (Topping, 1988; Utley Mortweet, 1997). Peer tutoring is structurally embedded in the curriculum and classroom organization and is characterized by specific role taking: One person has the job of tutor, while the other is the tutee (Topping, 1996). Moreover, effective peer tu tutor training (Bentz Fuchs, 1996;toring is characterized by a preceding Fuchs, Fuchs, Bentz, Phillips, Hamlett, 1994; Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, Phillips, Karns, Dutka, 1997). With regard to the dyad composition, two variants can be tutoring refers to older students tutoring younger stu distinguished. Cross-age in same-age tutoring, children are paired with classmates. The variant in dents; students alternate regularly between the tutor and tutee role is called rec iprocal same-age tutoring (Fantuzzo, King, Heller, 1992). Peer tutoring has been successful in a variety of curriculum areas and age groups. Research has indicated positive effects on academic achievement for both tutor and tutee (Cohen, Kulik, Kulik, 1982; Fantuzzo, Davis, Ginsburg, 1995; which Fantuzzo, Polite, Grayson, 1990; Fantuzzo et al. , 1992; Greenwood et al. , 1988; Mathes et al. , 2001 ;Simmons et al. , 1995). In this respect, peer tutoring is not only about transmission from the more able and experienced to the less able (Topping, 1996); tutors seem to benefit even more from tutoring than students who receive et al. ; Lambiotte et al. , the individual tuition (Fitz-Gibbon, 1988; Greenwood 1987). This can be explained by the nature of tutoring a peer: Tutors are chal to engage in ac lenged to consider the subject fully from different perspectives, to identify and correct errors, to reorganize and clarify their own tive monitoring knowledge and understandings, and to elaborate on information in their explana tions (Fuchs Fuchs, 2000). Because the application of reading strategies re quires actively monitoring the reading process, peer tutoring may be considered a powerful learning environment for the acquisition of reading comprehension the reading process of another reader might facilitate the ac skills. Monitoring of self-monitoring skills and, hence, the adequate application of reading quisition (1978) the strategies. From a theoretical perspective, consistent with Vygotskys ory of socially mediated learning, the object of the dyadic interaction in the peer tutoring activities is the joint construction of text meaning by appropriate appli cation of relevant reading strategies to a wide range of texts and, in the long term, the intemalization and consistently self-regulative flexible use of strategic pro cessing whenever encountering texts that are challenging to comprehend. Furthermore, positive effects also have been found on tutors and tutees social and emotional functioning, especially with regard to self-efficacy perceptions, self-concepts, social relationships, and attitudes toward the curriculum areas treated in the tutoring sessions (e. g. , Cohen et al. , 1982; Fantuzzo et al. , 1992; Fantuzzo et al. , 1995; Greenwood et al. , 1988; Mathes Fuchs, 1994). Regard This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 295 Van Keer Verhaeghe is an especially self-efficacy  important construct, ing reading comprehension, that attention to strategy instruction alone is not sufficient to produce max given imum reading growth (Casteel, Isom, Jordan, 2000). Affective factors result in deeper engagement with text, which translates into superior achievement. Henk and Melnick (1995) asserted that self-efficacy judgments can affect an individ uals overall orientation to the process of reading; influence choice of activities; affect continued involvement, amount of effort expended during reading, and the in pursuing text comprehension; And ultimately affect degree of persistence achievement. Our aim in the present intervention study was to design, implement, and evalu ate complex sets of instructional interventions in authentic classrooms to enhance second and fifth graders reading comprehension achievement and self-efficacy perceptions toward reading. The specific contribution of the present study is the focus on peer-tutoring variants as instructional techniques to practice the use of reading. More strategies. comprehension we specifically, concentrated on an ex of practicing reading strategies in (a)  plicit comparison teacher-led whole-class activities, (b) reciprocal same-age peer-tutoring activities, or (c) cross-age peer-tutoring activities within the same study for two different age groups. So far, cross- and same-age tutoring have not been compared within the same study, and there is only indirect reference material from themeta-analysis of of the relative merit Cohen and colleagues (1982) with regard to the differential impact. Furthermore, in the present study, we extend prior research by (a) sampling a larger number of studies; Participants than is typically the case in strategies-based comprehension (b) supporting teachers to implement the innovations in the natural classroom con text with the participation of all students of all abilities during an entire school year, which represents sensitivity to the interventions ecological validity; (c) tar geting students in the early and intermediate grades, populations that deserve more attention with regard tometacognitive and strategic behavior; (d) including maintenance long-term measures; (e) using standardized reading comprehension tests not directly linked to the treatment; and (f) applying multilevel modeling to  take the hierarchical nesting of students in classes into account. Based on a review of the research literature and the aforementioned lines of reasoning, we formulated the following hypotheses for the study: Hypothesis teacher-led 1. Explicit whole-class reading or peer-tutoring graders reading comprehension prehension strategies instruction, activities, achievement more followed enhances by practice second and in fifth than traditional reading com instruction. 2. Practicing reading strategies in cross-age or reciprocal same-age peer-tutoring activities generates larger positive changes in second and fifth  Hypothesis graders during comprehension whole-class achievement than more traditional activities. This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions teacher-led practice 296 The Journal Education of Experimental is more obvious for sec 3. Improvement in reading comprehension Hypothesis ond and fifth graders functioning as tutees and tutors, respectively, in cross-age peer-tutoring activities than for their peers alternating between the tutor and tutee roles in reciprocal same-age activities. Hypothesis 4. Cross-age and reciprocal same-age peer-tutoring activities second and fifth graders self-efficacy perceptions toward reading more ditional teacher-led instructional techniques. improve than tra 5. Improvement in self-efficacy perceptions toward reading is more Hypothesis obvious for second and fifth graders functioning as tutees and tutors, respective ly, in cross-age peer-tutoring activities than for their peers alternating roles in activities. same-age reciprocal Method Design We used a pretest, posttest, and retention test control group design. To ensure the ecological validity of the interventions, we included complete naturally com posed classes. Participating classes were assigned to one of four research condi tions. In the strategies-only condition (STRAT), the experimental intervention in cluded explicit reading strategies instruction, followed by practice in teacher-led whole-class settings. The experimental same-age (STRAT + SA) and cross-age included identical instruction in the (STRAT + CA) peer-tutoring conditions same cross-age dyads, or cross-age with combined strategies, In this respectively.  tutoring. Finally, class-wide we respect, included practice students a control in reciprocal experienced either characterized group, or same-age same by tra activities without explicit strategies instruction ditional reading comprehension or peer tutoring. Classes were randomly assigned to the STRAT or tutoring con ditions. Within the tutoring conditions, teachers opted in favor of the STRAT + SA or STRAT + CA condition according to the readiness of a colleague to col laborate in the STRAT + CA activities. We selected control group classes to match the experimental teachers  and classes. Because the classes were naturally composed and the assignment of classes to the conditions was not completely randomized, the design can be regarded as quasi-experimental. Participants In total, 444 second and 454 fifth graders from 44 classes in 25 different schools throughout Flanders (Belgium) participated in the study. Except for some small-scale initiatives of individual schools, peer tutoring was fairly unfamiliar at the time of the study. Other cooperative or interactive techniques, such as This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 297 Van Keer Verhaeghe and circle time, were better known and more group work, group discussion, fre used. quently Except for one inner-city school in the STRAT condition with mainly a low so status and ethnic minority population, all schools had a predomi cioeconomic Flemish population. The majority of the children were from middle nantly white, class families. Except for one second-grade class including only girls, there was approximately an equal gender distribution: In second- and fifth-grade classes, on = = 18.55) of the students were boys. At 16. 54) and 48% (SD average, 53% (SD the beginning of the school year, second graders were aged, on average, 7 years and 4 months, and fifth graders were aged, on average, 10 years and 5 months. The majority of the students (402 in second and 422 in fifth grade) were native speakers. Because elementary school students in Flanders are not grouped by ability, classes are considered academically heterogeneous, which was con firmed by the pretest reading comprehension measures. Class size ranged from 15 to 28 students, with an average of approximately 21 (SD = 3.50) in the second grade, and from 10 to 30 students in the fifth grade, with an average of approxi = mately 22 (SD 5. 00) students per class. Second- and fifth-grade teachers had, on Dutch average, 11 and 20 years of teaching experience, respectively. Four of 22 second grade and 5 of 22 fifth-grade teachers were men. None of the teachers had previ ous experience in explicit reading strategies instruction or peer tutoring. We selected participating teachers from a group of approximately 100 second and fifth-grade teachers who were willing to take part in a long-term research study. All interested teachers received a questionnaire concerning their teaching practices and opinions regarding learning and instruction. The first step in the teacher-selection we selected ative and interactive to pace according was procedure student-oriented instructional or content. who Furthermore, of the schools of matching and classes this specifically, in applying experienced cooper and able to build in differentiation we based the throughout Flanders with More questionnaire. were techniques graphical distribution teachers on based teachers regard to selection on the geo and on the possibility teachers teaching  experience, beliefs, and instructional practice; class size; students age; gender distribution; and dominating mother tongue. Table 1 shows the number of participating class es and students Measurement per condition. Instruments study, we used standardized tests to measure students reading achievement and decoding fluency. We administered question comprehension naires with respect to reading attitude, perceived competence, and preoccupation with attributions and self-efficacy perceptions toward reading. In the present Reading tests. We comprehension using Dutch standardized measured test batteries reading  comprehension (Staphorsius Krom, This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions achievement 1996; Verhoeven, 298 The Journal TABLE 1. Number of Participating Education of Experimental Classes and Students Grade Fifth Second Condition Classes STRAT + SA STRAT + CA STRAT Control 6 5 Note. cross-age 163 124 444 22 = explicit whole-class STRAT teacher-led peer-tutoring 22 101 69 177 107 454 66 8 Students 91 3 group Total Classes Students reading comprehension strategies instruction followed by practice in = activities; SA activities; CA = same-age peer-tutoring  reciprocal activities. 1993), which were selected based on the tests well-established psychometric the built-in adaptation to different student abilities, and the fact characteristics, that the tests address aspects of comprehension covered by the strategies part of occasion, we administered the experimental program. At each measurement with an increasing level of difficulty. The questions tiple-choice tence, the referral contained pretest second-grade asking relation for between short six the meaning words, stories, of each a word, the connection followed the meaning between by of sentences, tests 5 mul  a sen and the theme of a text. We determined the scores by the number of correct answers. The second-grade post- and retention tests consisted of four and three different stories, respectively, each followed by 4 to 10 multiple-choice questions, with a total of 25 questions per test. More specifically, questions concerning the content of a text (demanding a clear understanding of the meaning of words and sen tences, the referral relation between words, the connection between sentences, and the theme of the text) and questions concerning the communication between the author and the reader of the text (e.g. , objective of the author, intended target group, the authors attitude toward the matter raised) could be distinguished. Both types of questions required integration of information on different textual levels (words, sentences, paragraphs, text) and were more or less equally distrib uted over the 25 questions per text. After discussing an example, students com pleted the tests individually. To examine the tests internal consistency, Cron bachs a coefficients were calculated on our own data, yielding high reliability scores of . 90 (n = 432) for the pretest, . 84 (n = All) for the posttest, and . 83 (n = 385) for the retention test. In fifth grade, the tests consisted of three modules of 25 multiple-choice ques tions each. All students took the first module of the test. Depending on these first This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 299 Van Keer Verhaeghe results, students further completed an easier or more difficult module. Two types of questions requiring the integration of information on different textual levels could be distinguished: questions concerning the content and questions concern ing the communication the author  between and the reader. an After stu example, dents completed the tests individually. Scores were determined by summing the correct answers. For the reading comprehension test, IRT-modeled scores were on Item Response Theory (IRT), a common scale had been de available: Based allowing us to veloped for different grades and test versions (easy-difficult), or more difficult part of the test. Because they are all on the compare the easier same scale, the IRT-modeled scores also allow for direct comparison of the re occasions. To verify the relia sults a student obtained at different measurement  bility of the three modules of the pre-, post-, and retention tests, we computed Cronbachs a coefficients on our own data. Table 2 indicates that reliability of all measures comprehension was acceptable. test. We included second graders decoding fluency, which is a Decoding fluency combination of accuracy and decoding speed (Chard, Simmons, Kameenui, 1998), as an additional variable, because fluency can be considered a mediating factor on students reading comprehension achievement (Pressley, 2000). A stan dardized test (Brus, 1969) was administered individually to  all second graders; students were asked to read unrelated words with an increasing level of difficul ty during exactly 1min. The score was determined by counting the number of words read correctly. We collected fluency data in second-grade classes only be cause it is recognized that reading fluency is generally well developed at the end of the third grade (Bast Reitsma, 1998; Sticht James, 1984) and because it was too time to test consuming all fifth graders as well. individually on self-efficacy perceptions and related causal attributions. With Questionnaire  in the framework of the present study, we developed a questionnaire to measure TABLE a Coefficients 2. Cronbachs Comprehension for the Fifth-Grade Reading Tests Measurement occasion Posttest Pretest Test module n n an a .81 1 .76 2 3 .66 Note. At each measurement used. 468 167 271 occasion a different Retention test a .72 .76 .74 test with 442 256 175 an increasing This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions .76 .79 .77 41 level of difficulty 403 362 was 300. The Journal Education of Experimental  students preoccupation with positive or negative thoughts or related causal attri butions with regard to their reading ability. Inspired by the work of Ames (1984), we asked children to report how often such thoughts crossed their mind before, during, or after reading. Factor analysis revealed that success attributions and positive thoughts about ones own reading competence on the one hand and fail ure attributions and negative self-efficacy perceptions on the other hand are very (1984) and closely related. This result is in line with the findings of Marsh and Debus (1984), who stated that self-attribu  Marsh, Cairns, Relich, Barnes, can tions seen be as or expressions indicators ones of or self-concept self-effi we constructed two scales reflecting negative and cacy perceptions. Therefore, about ones own reading abilities. It should be positive thoughts, respectively, noted that capturing the incidence of self-efficacy-related thoughts does not give a direct measure of students self-efficacy perception but rather indicates the de a student is preoccupied with such thoughts. In this respect, related to (meta)cognitive activity than data collected gree to which data are more means the directly of more  traditional a However, questionnaires. self-concept by inci high dence of negative self-efficacy-related thoughts can be considered an indication of a low self-efficacy perception, but such a conclusion cannot be drawn from a low incidence of positive self-efficacy-related thoughts. The latter suggests only that the student is not preoccupied with thoughts about reading proficiency or success. We administered read graders and completed at each the questionnaire the questionnaire measurement occasion. In individually. second Fifth all grade, items were read out loud to and judged individually by the students. As can be seen in Table 3, reliability was high for the negative subscale, but it was somewhat lower for the positive subscale. To investigate the validity of the both questionnaire, TABLE scales were correlated a Coefficients 3. Cronbachs Preoccupation With Attributions with for the scholastic the Questionnaire Measurement 2nd grade Success Concerning occasion attributions negative 2nd grade 5th grade and self-efficacy perceptions Failure Posttest 5th grade anananan scale attributions positive sub and Self-Efficacy Perceptions Pretest Questionnaire competence .63 419 .69 441 .75 402 .71 426 367 .83 408 .84 368 .81 393 and self-efficacy perceptions .77 This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 301 Van Keer Verhaeghe scale of a Dutch Profile for Children (Harter, version of the Self-Perception 1985). These analyses revealed that both positive and negative self-efficacy per ceptions were significantly (p 0. 01) correlated with the scholastic self-concept subscale with r = -. 40 (pretest) and r = -. 37 (posttest) for the negative self-effi = . 22 = . 19 cacy subscale and r (posttest) for the positive self-ef  (pretest) and r subscale. ficacy scale. Although we mainly focused on students self-effi cacy perceptions directly related to reading activities, we administered an exist (Veerman, Straathof, Treffers, Van den Bergh, ing self-concept questionnaire ten Brink, 1997), which is a Dutch version of the Self-Perception Profile for Children (Harter, 1985). Because the questionnaire was not appropriate for sec Perceived competence ond graders, we used the instrument with the fifth-grade group only. To verify the reliability of the different scales, we computed Cronbachs a coefficients. As can be seen in Table 4, the reliability of the measures was acceptable. As to the ques tionnaires validity, Veerman and colleagues investigations into the validity of self-report reported that, compared with other scales, the validity can be judged as moderate. Reading attitude scale. Both second and fifth graders completed a Dutch Read ing Attitude Scale (Aarnoutse, 1996) at the pre- and posttest. Fifth graders read and completed the questionnaire individually.

American Dream Analysis In Literature English Literature Essay

American Dream Analysis In Literature English Literature Essay Millers Death of a Salesman and A raisin in the Sun presents the efforts and frustrations of a family in pursuit of the American Dream (Curtain 115). Dreams are the very different to each individual. Walter, the hero in A Raisin in the Sun is another Willy who struggles to realize his version of American Dream. In their attempts to achieve the Dream, Willy and Walter shows that they are common in some aspects. A social study by Alister Bull points out America may still think as the land of opportunity, but the chances of living a rags-to-riches life are a lot lower than elsewhere in the world(BBS). The American Dream is just illusion. It is illusions of chance for the future. Walter has high expectation of himself and he try out to succeed. Hansberry has stated that Walter Younger is an American more than he is anything else, he believes anyone can become anything he wants to be in the land of promise. He wants to quit his boring job. He works as a chauffeur for white. He wants to be successful businessman who runs his own business. As solid evidences of success, he wants to buy a Cadillac convertible and some real pearls for Ruth, big house with a garden for his family and opportunity to go to well known college in America for Travis(1537). For himself, he would like to drive a black Chrysler because Rich people dont have to be flashy(1538). Other common backgrounds of their dreams is the idea of being big, which they are obsess with. The word big is often used by Willy and his two sons: Willy tells around that working on a very big deal(1466). He believes his sons will end up big(1469). That is why Biff complains he has to be boss big shot in two weeks, to satisfy Willys dream. The idea of being big also use as important in the life of the Younger family. Walter follows the idea of being big: Big. Invest big, gamble big, hell lose big if you have to, you know what I mean(1525). When Walter finds out his son want to be a bus driver, he responses, A what? Man, that aint nothing to want to be! cause, man it aint big enough you know what I mean(1537). Waiters attitude echoes Willys emblematic motto:Start big and youll end big(1452). Other members of Walters family also reflex his attitude. Lena is most realistic character in the play, also has desire for something big, something high in her life: Lord, ever since I was a little girl, I always remembers people saying, Lena Lena Eggleston, you aims too high all the time.You needs to slow down and see life a little more like it is. Just slow down some Thats what they always used to say down home Lord, that Lena Eggleston is a high-minded thing: Shell get her due one day(1553). Lena seems to fulfill at least a part of her dream because she buys a decent house: I just seen my family falling apart todayWhen it gets like that in life you just got to do something different, push on out and do something bigger(1530).The characters desire to be big reflects emptiness of their dreams. They are confuse by the bright appearance of the American dream. Walter and Willy are not qualified to be big as they imagine because they have many weaknesses. First, they fail to understand the needs of education as the first major step to begin their search for the dream. Willys attitude toward education is well demonstrate when he teaches his sons: Bernard can get the best marks in school, yunderstand, but when he gets out in the business world, yunderstand, you are going to be five times ahead of him Thats why I thank Almighty God youre both built like Adonises. Because the man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates personal interest, is the man who gets ahead, Be liked and you will never want. (1435). Willy believes that anyone can succeed by being well-liked or make an appearance in the business world, even without education. Walter also miss importance of education. He accuses George and Beneatha: I see you all the time with the books tucked under your arms going to your (British A a mimic) clahsses. And for what! What the hell you learning over there? Filling up your heads -(Counting off on his fingers) with the sociology and the psychology but they teaching you how to be a man? How to take over and run the world? They teaching you how to run a rubber plantation or a steel mill? New just to talk proper and read books and wear white shoes.(1525). He reproaches colleges produce only good-for-nothings. When he cannot understand the importance of education as meanings of dreams. Walter and Willy both try to achieve American dreams without efforts, both of them are immoral. Willy once encourages his son to steal materials to mend their stairs. Their crime is evidence of courage and spirit. He even asks Bernard to help Biff cheat on examination. Walter is also corrupted by materialism. He only counts being wealth and have power is important. It is somewhat meaningful for him to run liquor store, which Mama thinks immoral. Walter doesnt feel guilty when he decides to bribe the officials to get the license. They are immoral and also often blind to needs. Willy tries to kick out the woman he slept with in front of Biff. He try to cover his shameful situation. Willy tries to cut down Lindas talking whenever she tries to open her mouth, while he keeps interrupting Biffs talking. Walter says to Beneatha, go be a nurse like other women-or just get married and be quiet(1501). He does not care about Beneathas dream being sacrifice to satisfy his own. Willy and Walter share many weak points. Their dreams are closely related with their family, especially with their son. Willy and Walter differ by their family backgrounds. For Willy, he did not have any parental love: Dad left when I was such a baby and never had a chance to talk to him and I still feel-kind of temporary about myself(1445). In contrast, Walter has received full attention and love from his parents. Mama describes her husband as one who greatly love his children. One of the reasons Big Walters death was loss of his third child few years ago. Walter received love from his parents during his childhood led him to develop his strong sense of self-esteem, enabling him fully to accept American values and giving him the confidence to pursue his dream(Washington 115). Willy and Walter are in love for their children. Willy have commit his desire for parental love though pouring his affection, and through making himself idolize to his sons. Linda points out, Few men are idolized by their children the way you are(1437). He expects his sons to fulfill the dream. He knows he fails to achieve through being liked. Willy and Walters expectation for their sons can be combine by Mamas speech, Seem like God didnt see fit to give the black man nothing but dreams-but He did give us children to make them dreams seem worth while(1505). Their desire to fulfill dreams is basically for their sons. Their search for the dream is also influenced by their marital situation. Linda deeply understand partner. She told her sons: I dont say hes great man. Willy Loman never made a lot of money. His name was never in the paper. Hes not the finest character that ever lived. But hes a human being, and a terrible thing is happening to him. So attention must be paid Hes not to be allowed to fall into his grave like an old dog. Attention, attention must be finally paid to such a person(1447). At this point, it seems natural for Willy to exclaim:Youre my foundation and my support, Linda(1427). A closer examination of Lindas attitude toward Willy, she does not fully understand him. Willy returns from a sales trip. He brags that he made more than twelve hundred on the trip and Linda starts to calculate how much their net income will be. His brag is followed by the terrible confession that he made only two hundred gross on the trip. Linda replies,Well, it makes seventy dollars and some pennies. Thats very good.(1436). Linda talks cold rather than generosity to her husbands problems. Willy finds out other people laugh at him and he talks too much. When he admits the facts to Linda, he is revealing his true identity as a man of discouragement and failure. Linda fails to help him accept the truth, Oh dont be foolish You dont talk too much, youre just lively, Willy darling, youre the handsomest man in the world(1437). By sticking to illusion Willy try to implant. She avoids the painful moment, so she lose chance to help to accept the reality. Therefore, one cannot deny that there is a clear connection between her refusal to challenge those illusions and death (Bigsby, In Memoriam12). Ruth in A Raisin in the Sun understands the frustration of her husband, Walter. Unlike Willy he does not complain of his careless wife, Walter openly complains: Thats it. There you are. Man say to his woman: got me a dream. His woman say: Eat your eggs and go to work. (passionately now) Man say: I got to change my life, Im choking to death, baby! And his woman say-(In utter anguish as he brings his fists down on his thighs)-Your egg is getting cold!(1499). Facing Walters fault, Ruth try to help him: No. Mama, something is happening between Walter and me. I dont know what it is-but he needs something-something I cant give him any more. He needs this chance, Lena.(1504). She understands what Walter really craves for successful business. This is why she give the insurance money to Walter even though she knows she has nothing to do with the money. The relationship between Walter and Ruth reflex to Mama and Big Walter. Mama remembers Honey, Big Walter would come on here some nights back then and slump down on that couch there and just look at the rug, and look at me and look at the rug and then back at me and Id know he was down thenreally down(1505). Unlike Linda who keeps blind to her husbands problems, Mama understands Big Walters situation. Her suffering acquire from helplessness. She has to feel in front of her husbands frustration. Lena shows patience, understanding, selflessness and love toward her son as well as the husband. Willy and Walter soon find out that their dreams are doomed to failure. Willys frustration of his own failure also come from his son, Biffs. He already know about his own failure. I (Biff) never got anywhere because you (Willy)`stand taking orders from anybody! Thats whose fault it is!(1487). Biff has failed to get a stable and profitable job. He still earns only a dollar an hour. He has been imprisoned several times for the crime of theft. As a result of the failure, they are faced with painful awakening moment. When Willy realizes his dream disappear, he clings to another new illusion: He (Biff) will make it with their money. He believes that Biff will have a good chance to get ahead in the world, if he can leave life insurance money for Biff through suicide. When Walter finds money gone with the imposter, he accept the guilty money collected by the white neighbors of the new community to buy the Youngers off. At last moment, he changes his mind. Instead of receiving money, he declares to Mr. Lindner, We have decided to move into our house because my father-my father- he earned it(1558). Here, Walter achieves manhood, realizing that dignity is a quality of men, not bank accounts(Weales 529). In different reactions from each other, Willy and Walter still have something in common. Their desire to hand the world to his son in earnest way. For Willy, suicide is more than simple expression of illusion, it is an positive action to show dignity and meaning of his life. Walters spiritual growth is easily justified, considering his warm and strong affection for Travis. By rejecting Lindners offer in Traviss presence, he hands down not disgrace but pride and dignity to Travis, keeping the dream alive. Because of their dreams revealed, suspended, destroyed, and renewed again spring from the heroes concern for their families, both plays are domestic under the seemingly social context.

East Goes West :: essays research papers

One of the first works of fiction written by an Asian immigrant to the United States, Kang's novel describes his early adulthood with a poignant humor that touches not only on his most positive experiences in a new country--such as being befriended by other Korean Americans--but also on some of his worst: the time when college classmates convinced him to run a race in long underwear. Kang, however, never forces us to feel sorry for him; simply by relating his experiences to us in a uniquely crafted language that reflects both his extensive literary training and his own quirky sense of style, Kang manages to win our sympathy for an obviously gifted young man who faces discrimination and hardship during his first years away from home His struggle was long and hard, but he made the reader see the full picture. The joys, the downfalls, and even the times where he thought he could just give up. By making us relate to him, the reader could understand what they so previously where obliviou s to. I responded very favorably to his view of Korean culture but found his criticism of American culture distasteful.I did not fully receive the effect of Kang's humor until reaching the final sentence of the story. Before the final scene, Kang's wit serves the purpose of elevating the Asian Han in the eyes of his audience, but ultimately, it has a more serious, lingering effect. Ironically, it reveals the life of this character to be tragic, hopeless, and not at all amusing. The final line, delivered by Han's mistress, dismisses him from his post, for she requested "a house servant, not a comedian" (2001). Kang thus suggests here that regardless of the amount of effort Han puts into his work and no matter how honest his intentions, he will never be taken seriously nor given a chance to assimilate and improve upon his mistakes. Although he was expected "to work from morning to night" and "had never had to work so hard in his life with no time to himself," his intentions were never regarded as anything but lazy and laughter provoking. Upon learning that he is to be fired, he offers one final, wholehearted attempt to please an unsatisfiable woman: "But hoping still to make good, I dragged the vacuum cleaner in to do the living room, my usual morning task. The girl as usual giggled when she saw me. East Goes West :: essays research papers One of the first works of fiction written by an Asian immigrant to the United States, Kang's novel describes his early adulthood with a poignant humor that touches not only on his most positive experiences in a new country--such as being befriended by other Korean Americans--but also on some of his worst: the time when college classmates convinced him to run a race in long underwear. Kang, however, never forces us to feel sorry for him; simply by relating his experiences to us in a uniquely crafted language that reflects both his extensive literary training and his own quirky sense of style, Kang manages to win our sympathy for an obviously gifted young man who faces discrimination and hardship during his first years away from home His struggle was long and hard, but he made the reader see the full picture. The joys, the downfalls, and even the times where he thought he could just give up. By making us relate to him, the reader could understand what they so previously where obliviou s to. I responded very favorably to his view of Korean culture but found his criticism of American culture distasteful.I did not fully receive the effect of Kang's humor until reaching the final sentence of the story. Before the final scene, Kang's wit serves the purpose of elevating the Asian Han in the eyes of his audience, but ultimately, it has a more serious, lingering effect. Ironically, it reveals the life of this character to be tragic, hopeless, and not at all amusing. The final line, delivered by Han's mistress, dismisses him from his post, for she requested "a house servant, not a comedian" (2001). Kang thus suggests here that regardless of the amount of effort Han puts into his work and no matter how honest his intentions, he will never be taken seriously nor given a chance to assimilate and improve upon his mistakes. Although he was expected "to work from morning to night" and "had never had to work so hard in his life with no time to himself," his intentions were never regarded as anything but lazy and laughter provoking. Upon learning that he is to be fired, he offers one final, wholehearted attempt to please an unsatisfiable woman: "But hoping still to make good, I dragged the vacuum cleaner in to do the living room, my usual morning task. The girl as usual giggled when she saw me.

Do Science And Technology Provide A Solid Base For Technocracy :: essays research papers

To answer this question one must first understand that every politico-economic ideology, like every religious belief, proclaims that it has the one true doctrine and that all others are entirely different or at opposite ends. In most instances individuals join in voluntary association to act upon those opinions, ideas or beliefs which they hold in common. These opinions, ideas or beliefs may or may not be based on facts and hence most end with disastrous results. However once ideas have crystallized into organized action little question is raised to their feasibility or conformance to fact. Conclusively the objective of the group is either initially or ultimately the result of compromise being either very limited or very general in scope. This explains the ineffectiveness of the emotional approach and the political generality does not adequately define the project. The end result is the making of a mountain out of a molehill where the emphasis is on the exaggeration and reiteration o f minor differences while ignoring what they have in common. Technocracy partakes one single element in that it is dependent on the voluntary association of individuals acting upon certain ideas upon which they are in agreement. Comparatively it differs from all other social movements since its common ideas are not the result of philosophic agreement. Technocracy does in fact in theory need science and technology to be based upon, but it is this â€Å"science and technology† that the populace overlooks and assumes it as engineered technology.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ideas of engineering are in fact in our bones and part of human nature and experience (Petroski preface). This statement by Petroski is the very basis of technocracy. With it one can claim that No, Science and Technology do not provide a base for Technocracy yet to be a technocrat is to be human. If we consider democracy or any other doctrine and compare it with this proclamation then we may argue that one in their everyday life is more apt to be a technocrat then a democrat (Petroski 16).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Technology and Technologists, we may assume include each individual and each idea that lends itself to the productive incline in the lifestyle of individuals. Thus encompassing not only scientists and engineers but also teachers and experts in departments that are remotely necessary for the operation of a social norm. One may argue upon the failures of engineers and expansionists in the field of technology throughout history but overlook the successes.

Environmental Issues: Deforestation Book Project

Hannah Pilon Due Date: Friday February 8, 2013 Winter Term Library Assignment: Deforestation Marcus, B. A. (2009). Tropical forests. (pp. 125-135). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. This chapter was very informative and gave a lot of information about the reasons of deforestation. I knew that logging and agriculture were major causes of deforestation, but this chapter taught me that mining too is also a big factor. The author was very knowledgeable about this subject and wrote in a way that was very easy to understand.This chapter also gave a very thorough explanation of the impacts of deforestation on the lands. Through this chapter, the author explains how just because a few trees are cut down, the water supply diminishes and can lead to drought as well as many other issues that I did not know about. This is probably my favourite source about this deforestation problem as it was easy to understand and the author did not drag out his writing and got to the point very quick ly. It was a good read! Forsyth, T. , & Walker, A. (2008). Forest guardians, forest destroyers. (pp. 20-21).Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press. This is a short section within a larger book, but just because it may be small does not mean that it is not informative. In this section, it was suggested that deforestation occurring in Ghana is leading to the expansions of savannahs. I believe that this is an important section, as many do not realize that many African countries are also suffering from deforestation, which is depleting the lands, creating more savannahs and deserts. This section gave me further knowledge on the crisis of deforestation in Ghana and how it affects the people that live there.It explains how the soil is becoming depleted, which in the long term, will greatly effect the people living in these areas. De'Ath, C. , ; Michalenko, G. (1993). High technology and original peoples: The case of deforestation in Papua New Guinea and Canada. In S. Rietberg en (Ed. ), The Eathscan reader in Tropical forestry (pp. 281-287). London: Earthscan Publications Limited. This chapter is extremely informative. Within pages 281-87, it explains how a Japanese paper company has gone into Papua New Guinea and basically destroyed the land.I found this section to be informative and eye opening because the Japanese company only cares about money, they are exploiting the land which leaves the workers and the native peoples that live in these areas to be left with basically nothing. It’s amazing how much a culture can depend on a forest and when it is gone how much their life has to change in order to survive. I have also come to notice that companies are causing a lot of deforestation from other countries, which seemingly do not care about the locals at all.They only care about making money and forget about the human life that depends on the forest to survive. Avissar, R. , Ramos da Silva, R. , ; Werth, D. (2006). Impacts of tropical deforestatio n on regional and global hydroclimatology In W. F. Laurance ; C. A. Peres (Eds. ), Emerging Threats to Tropical Rainforests (pp. 73-75). Chicago, USA: The University of Chicago Press. This section within the chapter went into detail about the global impacts of deforestation. It explained that how deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest effected the rainfall and precipitation in the United States.I found this to be extremely interesting how if one part of the world is ‘damaged’ it can, and will, affect another part of the world, which will greatly affect the other country. I learned a lot from this little section and the authors did a good job and explaining how this process works. I really enjoyed reading this section and I had no idea that deforestation in one area could affect another country so drastically. It is amazing how our world and ecosystems are all intertwined and how delicate each one is. Grieser Johns, A. (1997). Timber production and biodiversity conservat ion in tropical rain forests. pp. 185-187). Cambridge, UK: The Press Sydicate of the University of Cambridge. Throughout these pages, the issue of animal extinction became a new issue that I knew was a result of deforestation, but for some reason had never occurred to me. This author explains that although at this moment a lot of rainforest animals are â€Å"vulnerable† if change does not happen, many of these animals will become endangered, if not extinct. With a lot of species not discovered yet, there is no true knowledge of how many animals in these rainforests are already endangered and on their way to being an instinct species.The pages that I have used in this book were very informational and very eye opening. With so many innocent animals are being put in danger everyday because of deforestation and its not just them anymore as plants are also in danger of becoming vulnerable and extinct. Mateiyenu Nanang, D. (2012). Plantations forestry in Ghana theory and applicatio ns. New York: Nova Science Publishers. The author is very knowledgeable and this shows through in his writing. Although he puts a lot of graphs and charts, sometimes it was confusing trying to understand the point he was trying to get across.From what I did understand, he was talking about how the logging in Ghana has become a larger industry in the past few years than ever before. Because of this, Ghana is starting to already starting to see the effects of deforestation. The author also went into detail about how they need to start replanting a lot more that they currently are because very soon they will be on the way to clearing out all of the trees that they have access too. Although this book was hard to understand at times, it was a very good resource and gave a lot of good information about deforestation in Ghana.